Historian Woodrow Walton helps us look back over the big events and movement of history to see how God was working to make the story of Jesus known throughout the world. In this postscript to the Resurgence of the Gospel series, he ties together what the challenge of the Turkic-Moslem curtain meant and how it affected the people of Europe and the global mission of Christianity. Part of The Gospel in History series.

Part 1: “The Medieval Prologue and the Remapping of the World”

Part 2: “Recharting the Christian World Mission”

Part 3: “The Challenge of the Muslim Curtain”

Part 4: “The Reconversion of Europe”

This postscript and bibliography is Part 5 of the “Resurgence of the Gospel” series.

Part of Eurasia and Africa, with Europe highlighted in green.
Image: Wikimedia Commons

What has been offered in the “Resurgence of the Gospel” series is an overview of Eurasian and African Christian mission leading up to the time of the Ottoman takeover of Asia Minor and the capture of Constantinople, an action which prompted both recovery of the water route and overland roads to central and east Africa and initiation of deep-water navigation. Not only was Europe re-connected with Asia through this process, but this also opened a never-before meeting of Europe with southern Africa and the Asian countries bordering the Indian and Pacific oceans.

A statue of Olaf Tryggvason stands in Trondheim, Norway.
Image: Wikimedia Commons

Global navigation also brought about the happy accident of connection with the Americas. Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway and a convert to Christ several years before 1452, was influential in the baptism of the first European discoverer of North America, Leif Ericson, as well as Hallfred, the Scandinavian poet of skaldic verse. About thirty years before 1452, there was a contact with Greenland in the Atlantic, northeast of Canada. Greenland became Scandinavian property. The last Norwegian shipment of Cod and timber left Greenland approximately ten years before the fall of Constantinople.

A replica of John Cabot’s ship.
Image: Wikimedia Commons

Portuguese fisherman also had contact with the North Atlantic. On one Portuguese fishing operation there was a visiting sailor from Venice, Italy, by the name of Cristobal Colombo, known better by the English rendition of his name, Christopher Columbus. In the early 1490s, both Columbus and another Italian made attempts to reach Asia by turning west beyond the Gibraltar into the Atlantic. Columbus made landfall in what is now known as the Dominican Republic on a Sunday. He named the bay, Santo Domingo, “Holy Sunday.”

Columbus sailed under the auspices of Spain. Another Italian sailed under the auspices of England. He reached what is now known as Nova Scotia. His name was Giovanni Caboto, better known in North America as John Cabot.

Pastor Wes Shortridge presents a short history of the astounding revival that occurred on both sides of the American Civil War and how it impacted the nation for decades.

Introduction

America in 1861 presents a painful and complex chapter in history. God, however, had a plan for the American people, and God remained present during the painful chapter. God appears most in this period in the soldiers fighting the Civil War. Along the banks of the Rappahannock River in 1863, both armies faced one another in battle; however, both armies also faced a revival of religion. The paradox of revival in two armies facing one another presents an example of God’s ability to use revival to accomplish His purposes in spite of human conflict.

“Prayer in ‘Stonewall’ Jackson’s Camp” (1866).
Drawn by F. Kramer, Engraved by J. C. Buttre.

The Circumstances of the Revival

Pre 1861 America While many modern interpreters of the American situation before the Civil War view the war as a simple moral war in which one party supported slavery and the other party arose as a benevolent deliverer of an oppressed people, the actual situation in America proved much more complex. Americans, from both North and South, had sanctioned or at least ignored slavery for nearly a century. White men ruled the country, and obvious examples of misogyny and racism rarely arose as issues in a land that voiced the values of liberty and equality. The powerful elites from both North and South worked to protect the prominent position of the light-skinned and masculine. The first and second Great Awakenings had revived religion in America, but paternalistic racism remained unaddressed. Religion focused mostly on benevolence within the paternalistic system rather than valuing or empowering all humans.

Slavery in America found support in the hermeneutical principles of American religion in both the North and the South. Mark A. Noll describes the unique hermeneutic of America:

Americans held to a hermeneutic that was distinctly American. The reason they held it so implicitly was precisely that this hermeneutic—compounded of a distinctly Reformed approach to the scope of biblical authority (“every direction contained in its pages as applicable at all times to all men”) and a distinctly American intuition that privileged commonsense readings of scriptural texts (“a literal interpretation of the Bible”)—had functioned as the vehicle through which the Bible was unleashed in the creation of the American civilization.[1]

Abstract

Theological education, even when using indigenous languages, can be uninspiring to African people if its implicit underlying pre-suppositions remain European. Use of European-languages as educational media minimises the likelihood of deep connection with African ways of life, but often has the pragmatic plus of being accompanied by outside funds. A preference for use of outside languages in formal contexts in Africa arises in part from African people’s desire to protect their own tongues and ways of life from outside ‘attack’. These and other observations that point to a disconnect in translation between African and European languages speak powerfully to Bible translation concerns. They suggest that translation should be facilitated locally, and not be processed through Western pre-suppositional screens. They point to a need for Bible translators to spearhead a wider movement in which Christian mission from the West engages local contexts and languages, especially in theological education. The wider missionary body could benefit greatly from a more extensive dissemination of linguistic expertise that is currently captive to Bible translation communities. Dissemination of such will encourage more people to advocate for the use of indigenous language Bibles, and in turn begin to facilitate an escape from the linguistic naivety represented by the hegemony of European languages in theological education in Africa.

Introduction

Many Westerners implicitly assume that they are able to effectively engage with African issues, or at least are effectively able to connect to the engagement of African issues, using English.[1] In Anglophone Africa especially, I estimate that 99.999% of engagement between African people and Western people occurs in Western languages. Few seem to adequately consider the full ramifications of this extremely one-sided arrangement. Even some Westerners who are familiar with African languages do their serious inter-cultural engagement using English.

My engaging in discussion of African theology using African languages in indigenous contexts revealed a surprising issue: discussion easily becomes thoroughly uninspiring. The reason for its being for me at times so uninspiring seems frequently to reflect my inability at connecting with the worldview concerned. Even while using an African language, my own thinking remains deeply rooted in my own British way of life. Hence I easily approach issues from a ‘wrong’ angle; one that fails to engage at depth with where my African colleagues are coming from. I have been forced to conclude that understanding that arises from an unfamiliar pre-suppositional base can result in a fundamental disconnect. Realising that this was so for myself forced me to ask; could it be that African people are similarly uninspired by Western scholarship? In other words, is African people’s interest in the globalised English language educational system primarily pragmatic (it brings in the dollars) when actually there is a radical disconnect between it and who and what they are?

The possibility of such radical cultural-linguistic disconnect has serious implications for Bible translation. Should the ‘disconnected’ be the ones guiding bible translation? How can one, in the light of such disconnect, encourage Bible use and theological education in indigenous languages? Does a Western missionary’s following arise from the dollars that they carry? Are the Bible translations into African languages that are guided by Westerners implicitly ‘Western’? Is SIL, by concentrating linguistic expertise into Bible translation, denying the wider missiological world a vital set of insights? These are some of the questions that I address in this article.

A guest article from Christian ministry veteran, Charles Carrin.
 
Trust is not something that comes on its own. Where does it come from, how does it work, what does trust in God accomplish?

O for a faith that will not shrink, Tho’ pressed by every foe;

That will not tremble on the brink Of any earthly woe.

That will not murmur nor complain, Beneath the chastening rod;

But in the hour of grief or pain Will lean upon its God.

A faith that shines more bright and clear When tempests rage without,

That when in danger knows no fear, In darkness feels no doubt.

Lord, give us each such faith as this, And then what’er may come,

We’ll taste, e’en here, the hallowed bliss Of our eternal home!

— William H. Bathurst, 1831

Image: Jordan McQueen

Faith is not native to our planet but is projected into our cosmos from the Great-Other-Realm. Therefore, the faith at work in you is not at an attitude or mental effort on your part. Nor is it merely your religious concept or ideology. Faith is a trans-earthly power. As gravity, centrifugal force, thermodynamics, etc., are powers native to our cosmos, so faith is native to the other realm and is only a visitor in our’s. Faith came to you because of your “hearing the word of God”, Romans 10:17, and God then having dealt to you “a measure of faith”, Romans 12:3. Scripture makes it very plain that faith is a gift to you.

The Dictionary definition of faith is vastly insufficient. It identifies faith solely as religious persuasion, moral conviction, conscientious sentiment, credence, etc., but offers no comment about faith being a spiritual force. Wherever this concept has been accepted it has stripped Christianity of its inherent power. For that reason, much of what we call “faith” is nothing more than religious presumption and a poor imitation of the genuine. It is a deceptive counterfeit, rising from man’s soul—not his spirit—and remains powerless because it has no vital connection with the upper-domain of the Kingdom of God.

Nowhere is the distinction between religion and true spirituality more graphically displayed than in the difference between true faith and its artificial counterpart. Unfortunately, it is possible for believers to be seduced by a subtle imitation of faith. That seduction is supposition. Instead of hearing “what the Spirit is saying”, Revelation 3:13, people are directed by the deceptive appearance of circumstances. Supposition caused Paul’s shipwreck, Acts 27:13, Mary and Joseph’s three anxious days searching for the child Jesus in Jerusalem, Luke 23:44,45, and has brought frustration to millions of other conscientious believers. Churches are tragically caught in its trap.

Because of that, I wish to “coin” a Greek word, peiro, into an English application and join it with the word “faith”. Peiro means “to pierce through” and originates from the word peran meaning “other side”, “beyond”, “farther”, “over”, “across”. In Greek, the word for faith is pistis. The combination of the two words allows us to visualize faith’s purpose in penetrating our physical realm. This penetration is absolutely necessary if there is to be miraculous healing, spiritual gifting, deliverances, out-of-body transports, etc.

“Peiros-Faith” is a force that comes to our dimension from the other realm, passes through cooperative believers here, then, like an X-ray, penetrates and effects change in the circumstance it touches. Admittedly, the subject is beyond my explanation-but it is not beyond our exploration. I simply want to explore “faith” in its potential to interact both with our physical dimension of time and space while it maintains a complete, uninterrupted union with the Eternal Dimension where it originates. In other words, faith is a symphonizing of these separate dimensions. It is a force. A power.

Faith is a weapon in the hands of those who are vibrant and alive. Love, like gravity, is the force which grasps, bonds, holds to itself. Faith, working through love, penetrates, illuminates, radiates. Like sunlight restoring life to a plant kept too long in the dark, faith has the radiating power to change the spiritual environment around it and bring life.

If we want to break the dependency cycle, we must better understand the cultural context where we want to do business and ministry.

Abstract

Failure to take insufficient cognisance of local contexts leads to outsiders’ encouraging business in Africa resulting in a trail of dependency. Pertinent differences between African and Western contexts addressed in this article include; understandings of magic, orientation to feasts, recognition of mystical forces, language background, family arrangements, understanding of money, philosophy; dualism vs. monism, the penetration of ‘corruption’, awe of Whites, and more. Such differences are best compensated through a process of immersion in the foreign context. This can be achieved if a foreigner determines to confine themselves to local resources and languages in their operations.

Note: in his references to Africa and Africans the author draws on personal experience. Clearly, not all of Africa and not all Africans are the same.

Introduction

This article shows how worldview differences between Africa and ‘the West’ impact on business practices. Their impact is often such as to result in efforts at instigating and guiding business by the West leaving a trail of dependency. Extant differences are very complex in their practical outcome. Because of this complexity, it is not possible to design a strategy for dealing with them from a distance. The wise businessperson wanting to avoid creating dependency will plan and implement their activities in such a way as to remain vulnerable to and thus able to adjust to contextual surprises. A crucial way of doing this is to confine one’s business intervention in a foreign context to the use of local languages and local resources. Such practice is known as vulnerable mission. This is not a guaranteed strategy, but a means of maintaining sensitivity to local stresses. Following such strategy can result in business success being rooted in the local market. Such a business can continue without outside subsidy or control.

Differences

Westerners want to believe that African people are no different from ‘us’. The prospect of finding differences between African and Western people’s cultures can be terrifying. That is why racism is so broadly condemned in the West. Yet in fact there must be differences, and those differences are likely to affect the functioning of business. Some differences in socially overt behaviour that affect how someone engages in business arise from deep variations in ontological understanding. For example, very unlike Western dualism that distinguishes material from spiritual forces (classically by means of science) in African monism things and even being itself are defined by the ‘spiritual’ forces inherent in them (Tempels 1959:51).

“Once someone has prayed for you, say you are healed” the preacher said to this congregation. “You may feel no different, and you may notice no changes, but there is no point in being prayed for and then denying the power of prayer” he explained. This rather radically counter-scientific approach to healing is widespread in parts of Africa familiar to me. “Better to ask than to say nothing, because you have nothing to lose by asking and might just get something” said an African person to me, explaining part of the reason why African people are quick to ask for assistance from foreign visitors. Critiquing the prosperity gospel can be countered by some African people’s saying “but we believe God can indeed bless some people with riches.” It is hard for a Western Christian to know how to respond to such a comment; does one want to deny people blessing?

Jordan Seng is the pastor of Bluewater Mission in Honolulu, Hawaii. In this book he addresses the subject of supernatural ministry. However, the book is not primarily a theological text in defense of the present-day miraculous work of the Holy Spirit through the people of God. The book certainly contains theology and it most definitely affirms the contemporary reality of the supernatural but Miracle Work is exactly what the title indicates; it is a down-to-earth, practical guide to supernatural ministry. The book is inspirational and instructional; it contains both testimonies and teaching. Seng writes from the position of a practitioner, both he and his church are involved in the ministries that he writes about. Thus, he knows his subject well; he is familiar with both the joys and challenges of supernatural ministry.

The majority of the book is given to the consideration of the ministries of healing, deliverance, prophecy, and intercession. The instruction in each of these sections tells the reader how to actually engage in these kinds of ministries. Seng also addresses the subject of the Baptism of the Holy Spirit. He states that every believer should receive this experience because every believer is to be involved in kingdom work and needs this empowerment (page 201). The book closes with an appendix in which the author offers concrete advice for pastors who desire to move their churches forward into supernatural ministry.

I found a number of very interesting insights in this book. I will mention a few of them here. First, Seng points out that supernatural ministry is messy (page 12). Second, speaking of healing, deliverance, and prophecy he says they, “aren’t just meant to show God’s might; they’re meant to show God’s nature, which, again, is a mixture of both power and humility” (page 14). Third, is what he calls “The Power Equation” (page 55). “The Power Equation” is a list of four things that factor into increasing our power in the Holy Spirit. Seng writes: “Authority + Gifting + Faith + Consecration = Power” (page 55). He believes that the sum total of these four things will in large measure determine how much power we have for ministry (pages 55-56). He says, “No single component determines everything” (page 57). Fourth, he makes the interesting observation that as Christians we have not doubt that God wants to save the unsaved or deliver the demonized but when it comes to healing we are not as certain that God wants to heal (pages 82-83). Fifth, Seng sets forth some of the “costs” involved in supernatural ministry. He says that when Christians become involved in supernatural ministry they will attract all kinds of desperate people (pages 22-23) and they may experience doubt and disappointment when a miracle does not take place (page 24). Six, the author believes that those who participate in supernatural ministry should engage those who are in need of these ministries: people in cancer wards, disaster areas, and violent ghettos (pages 13-14, 17). Seven, the author has a very interesting, and pastoral, way of dealing with unanswered prayers for healing. He does not allow the sufferer to blame themselves or God; rather, he assumes responsibility for the lack of healing (pages 98-99). He does this so that the sufferer does not feel worse than they already do or become bitter and blame God (pages 98-99).

Carolyn De Arteaga, Watching God Work: The Stuff of Miracles (Alachua: Bridge-Logos, 2014), 192 pages, ISBN 9781610361217.

I recently finished reading this delightful book and I must admit the title threw me off just a bit. I picked up this book, I think, expecting something more dramatic and perhaps, even mystical. The term ‘miracles’ perhaps brought up for me the many stories as well as biographies of great spiritual leaders that I have read and have been inspired by.

I was not at all disappointed, but Carolyn certainly threw me a curve ball, and initially, I missed it badly. Not to imply that this book does not have miracles and inspiring stories. Quite to the contrary. It is chock full of stories and events which could be nothing but a clear presentation of Divine intervention. But where I was expecting hyperbole – she presented simplicity. I was expecting the dramatic – she made it normal. I was expecting some struggle in theological defense and presentation – she wove her way through those issues like leading a child through a crowded airport.

I was pleasantly surprised by her understatement and perhaps the strongest trademark of this book may be that Carolyn has taken that which is divine and somewhat mysterious and presented it as a part of her everyday life. I suspect that was her intent. In that regard, she truly succeeded.

I found myself (as I believe most readers will) captured by the differing emotions evoked by Carolyn’s stories. I could relate to the times of victory as well as the times of heart-rending struggle that she shared so candidly. One of Carolyn’s strengths is her ability to pull the wall down, show more humility and vulnerability than the average writer and yet not make the reader feel uncomfortable. She makes this seem so normal.

Carolyn presents this book in almost an autobiographical manner. Almost, in that is not designed to do so, but because it reveals so much of her own life and experiences. She takes the reader on a journey with her, her spiritual journey. It reveals how the miracles were formed and how the miracles formed her. To Carolyn’s credit, she discloses the hard times – the times when God did not seem to work and also the times when her theology was challenged. As she reveals in the book, those were the times that her understanding of God seemed to grow the most.

One of the exciting characteristics of the book is that Carolyn has done the extra service of putting a short study guide, complete with discussion questions at the end of each chapter. I think she really wants the readers to get it, not just read it and forget it. Several of these chapters should offer up some very interesting discussion. This makes Watching God Work especially useful as a text for Sunday School and home study groups.

This post is a follow up to Paul Elbert’s May 28 post entitled “Some Reflections of a Participant in Pentecostalism and Science.”

Thanks for this, Paul. I very much like your emphasis on the creative work of the Spirit throughout history and in the present world as well as in Christ, through Christ and among the new creatures who come into his Kingdom. Our God is big and we need a creation theology that reflects his greatness. And you are right, we certainly do not need to shy away from expecting/proclaiming the work of the Spirit with results we can observe, if not fully understand. It’s his creation, after all, and the work is still in progress. It’s still Saturday, but Sunday is coming.

Image: Egletrus / Wikimedia Commons

I have a question as an experimental biologist to a physicist. Could you explain “adding more energy to the system”. I’m not sure we know enough about how the Spirit interacts with matter to make that statement. I’m coming from Amos Yong’s discussion of the mysterious causal joint that connects Spirit with this material world. We can see the results, as Pentecostals and Charismatics boldly testify, but the mechanism eludes us (See especially Amos Yong, The Spirit of Creation).

On Pentecostal students embracing the sciences, a big Amen to that! I grew up in the Church and went straight to a secular university and then on to eventually a professorship in biology in the Canadian system. Nowadays it’s much easier to navigate the faith/science issues because of the wonderful literature and on-line support system available among Christ-centred believers. You might have to look for it a bit, but it’s there.

As for serious science requirements (maybe even a lab or two) for ministry/theology students – that makes two votes, but we may be a small lobby. I’d say a full 6 university credits, but realize that may not be possible for a good number. A theology/science course is a solid start. I wonder if they draw in research scientists as guest speakers. Also great to hear that Lee has their chem. undergrads doing research projects. This, as you know, is an essential part of the program even in the biggest research oriented departments.

In Christ,

Bev Mitchell

Prof. Emeritus of Biological Sciences

The author’s stated purpose is “expanding the definition of calling” (p. 6) as understood in traditional Pentecostal theology and to “show that a theology of calling and work requires a theology of the Spirit and giftings” (p. 17). Terry Cross informs readers that “This project [the Poiema Project, funded by a Lilly Endowment] began in a committee meeting. Originally, the faculty and staff of Lee University were the intended readers for his book”—which consists of “a discussion regarding calling within the context of [a] Christian liberal arts university” (p. 7).

Cross’ discussion regarding Pentecostal definitions and theology of vocation is not substantive—only a small portion of the text addresses these topics. The author maintains that historically, Pentecostal reflection on theology of call is limited, referring only to ministerial call. Cross does not approach the larger discussion of vocation from a Pentecostal perspective, supporting this decision based on his assertion that not much material is available.

Terry L. Cross

Although the author devotes a chapter to “A Theology of Work,” one weakness of the text is the omission of definitions for those terms similar to or related to vocation and call, such as profession, career, job, etc. An inclusion and comparison of these definitions would facilitate readers’ understanding of the precise relationships among these terms, distinctions in their meanings and in the way these terms are understood in Pentecostal and other Christian traditions.

Cross states that “‘Calling’ has a rather univocal definition for Pentecostals. It usually refers to God’s communication to preachers to make full-time ministry their career” (p. 45). The “usually” here is troubling and raises the question: What if the text included a more comprehensive discussion, based on further research, of call/calling as understood in the Pentecostal tradition? Would this result in uncovering a deeper or more diverse understanding of call, even though resources for the research of call in that tradition may be limited?

A fresh reminder from Chas Carrin about how amazing the Bible is and how the Spirit speaks through it today.

Pentecost exploded onto the ancient world with such power that it forever altered the work of scribes and the production of books. The overwhelming demand for the written account of Jesus had no precedent in world history. As a result, the New Testament numerically eclipsed all the combined works of Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus, Euripides, Homer, and other ancient writers. Today, there are 5,686 ancient Greek New Testament manuscripts still surviving. In contrast, only 7 copies of Plato survive, 49 of Aristotle, 8 of Herodotus, 9 of Euripides, etc., and all of these were copied at least 1,000 years after the original. This is not true of the New Testament; we have portions of the gospels going back to the first century and a fragment of the Book of John that was written about 29 years after the original. None of the secular books can make such a claim.

Copyright Stan Myers. Used with permission.

But there is more to tell. Besides Greek copies, there are some 19,000 ancient New Testament transcripts in the Syriac, Latin, Coptic, and Aramaic languages. This support-base of 24,000 historic New Testament manuscripts gives scholars opportunity to compare them for accuracy. The result: These books are about 99.5% textually pure. No other ancient writing has such a record. Not only so, but these copies are better preserved than any other document from the past. Also, keep in mind that when the original documents were written there were numerous people still alive who had heard Jesus for themselves and would have protested loudly had the writing been inaccurate. No such complaints exist. None of Plato or Aristotle’s hearers were present to edit the copies we now accept as valid.

Questions: If thousands of New Testaments survived the ravages of time when secular ones did not, how many more must have originally been written?! What was the motivation behind such an explosion of gospel books?

Answer: Pentecost impacted the world of its day with such cataclysmic power that there was an almost frantic-copying of thousands of New Testaments to meet the demand. For example, only 30 years after the death of Jesus, Christians in the city of Rome had become so numerous that when Emperor Nero set fire to the city he blamed them for the destruction. In the frenzy that followed, thousands were slaughtered-many crucified – but instead of eliminating them, Roman Christians grew in unprecedented numbers. They too experienced the same baptismal-power the Holy Spirit put upon disciples in the Upper Room. With that anointing, some preached from their crosses and more unbelievers were saved. Bibles were desperately needed. Today, Pentecost is still bringing people into personal encounters with the Holy Spirit – and intensifying the need for more copies of the New Testament.

The Bible Edition Which Most Impacted The English-Speaking World Is The One Known As The “King James” Or “Authorized” Version.

King James came to the Throne in 1603 when England was gripped in the fiery contest between Puritan “renewal” and Anglican “resistance”. Of himself, the King had little to recommend him. By London’s standards, he was crude and untrustworthy. The French King referred to him as the “wisest fool in Christendom”. Upon his appointment to the English Crown, King James left Stirling Castle in Scotland and by horse-drawn carriage started toward London. But things did not go as planned. On reaching the English border, he was immediately stopped by a group of Puritan ministers who presented him with a list of grievances. The urgency of their cause would not allow them to wait until his Coronation. Puritans demanded change; they were God’s preaching voice in that day. The Church of England, of which King James was titular “Head”, adamantly held to ritual and tradition. Though he responded favorably to the Puritan encounter that day at the border, King James was far from being their friend. Soon after his arrival in England he said of them, “I will make them conform or I will harry them out of the land – or else do worse.” This was not a bluff. In that day, dissenters were still being burned alive at the stake, having their ears or noses cut off, imprisoned, and abused in other horrendous ways. But in spite of King James’ threats, the Puritans had a temporary reprieve and God used the opportunity to bless humanity.