Missionary-scholar Jim Harries investigates whether the term “world religion” is a Western construct and points us toward a new way of sharing the story of Jesus that is free of this stricture.

Abstract

Globalised Western hegemony has resulted in the obscurest parts of the world having a contrived front to present to Western visitors and investigators. In European languages, many of these fronts are known as world religions. These European-reified inventions can significantly contribute to people’s self-identity vis-à-vis the West. This article suggests that Westerners engaging with communities in relation to their ‘religions’ easily end up engaging their own reflections, boxing their own shadows. The existence of such reflections of the West is what it is here suggested undermined the enthused 19^th century comparative theology project. Although created by those deeply influenced by Christianity, world religions are generally idolatrous. Formal dialogue with such Western inventions, apart from confusing the West, can further solidify what was originally reified, and cause efforts at Christian evangelism to falter and flounder. Engaging Christian mission in indigenous languages and without large amounts of outside resources results in responding to people’s actual ways of life rather than communicating ‘through Europe’ to reified world religions. Thus by avoiding contrived contexts, mission effectiveness can be streamlined.  

Introduction

The scholars who interpreted accounts and findings of 18^th and 19^th century explorers were deeply rooted in traditions of Western Christendom. They were accustomed to describing the Christian religion in terms of its dependence on a holy text, in terms of its doctrines that determined particular practices, in terms of beliefs, prayer, worship, and fulfilling of a complimentary role to a secular government. The scholars interpreted the practices they learned about people in other parts of the world in the way that was familiar to them. Hence, they made what have subsequently come to be known as other ‘world religions’ appear to be parallels to Western Christianity.

What happened to ‘comparative theology’?

19^th century Europe was characterised by much intense Christian belief.[1] One product of this that came under the heading of “comparative theology” was a “voluminous literature, which once filled the libraries of Europe and North America” (Masuzawa 2005:72). Mysteriously, nowadays Masuzawa tells us, this literature is “rarely read, and its very existence hardly recognised” (2005:72). What happened?

Adam Sparks, One of a Kind: The Relationship between Old and New Covenants as the Hermeneutical Key for Christian Theology of Religions (Eugene, Oregon: Pickwick, 2010), 325 pages, ISBN 9781606083451.

In this book Reformed theologian Adam Sparks attempts to contribute to the theology of religions conversation by offering a critique of some of the most popular approaches within this discipline. Unlike other projects that focus upon soteriology, this author limits his conversation to the relationship between the old and new covenants as it is treated by inclusivist models. In short, inclusivism maintains that people of faith traditions outside of Christianity may experience salvation by being included in the saving work of Christ. Ultimately, this means that it is not always necessary for an individual to be within the Christian faith in order to be a part of God’s redemptive activity. A Hindu, for example, may experience salvation, if God chooses to do so. The Hindu faith is not redemptive, rather it is God’s work within or despite his religious background that saves. There are many different nuances of the inclusivist position, and Sparks points out that many inclusivists affirm the fulfillment model. The fulfillment model maintains that Christ “fills out” non-Christian religions where they fall short. In other words, where other religions are incomplete, Christ fills in the gaps. Many inclusivist theologians apply the fulfillment model to the relationship between the old and new covenants. Just as Christ’s new covenant is the fulfillment of the old covenant, analogously, Christ must also be the fulfillment of all other religions. Christ not only completes the Jewish faith, but he is the capstone for all non-Christian religions. However, Sparks disagrees. He states “[T]he Israel analogy and fulfillment model have failed to comprehend the organic, progressive nature of this salvation history….[F]urther…the Israel analogy and fulfillment model undermine the significance of the Christ-event in salvation history by failing to appreciate the decisive effect of this event on history and the nature of existence”, and it is this point that motivates Sparks’ objective (xxiv).

Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduction to Theology of Religions: Biblical, Historical, & Contemporary Perspectives (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 372 pages.

In a world where wars are waged over disagreements between world religions, widespread ignorance and indifference regarding theology of religions is an astounding and inexcusable reality. In this book Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen takes a bold step towards correcting this sad situation. Kärkkäinen, professor of systematic theology at Fuller Theological Seminary and a prolific author, is noted for insightful surveys and summaries of complex theological subjects (e.g., see his Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit in Ecumenical, International, and Contextual Perspective, Baker, 2002). His own Evangelical and Pentecostal background bring added depth and dimension to his writing which Pneuma Review readers will appreciate as well. In An Introduction to Theology of Religions he makes a tremendous amount of material more readily accessible and intelligible for readers. Key characters and concepts are introduced and investigated objectively. An extensive table of contents, detailed outline, full bibliography, and thorough author/subject indexes are helpful aids for readability and research. Anyone, whether pastor or teacher, student or scholar, interested in gaining a good working knowledge of one of the most challenging but stimulating fields of study among the theological disciplines will assuredly benefit from a reading of this book. It may be particularly well-adaptable as a college or seminary textbook.

Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen begins with an introduction explicating the nature and needs of the newly developing discipline of theology of religions, and adds practical advice on how to use this book. Then he tackles, as the subtitle suggests, biblical, historical, and contemporary perspectives on theology of religions, closing with a brief epilogue. Noting that the rising challenge of religious pluralism now necessitates addressing theology of religions, Kärkkäinen distinguishes comparative religions, the study of world religions themselves, from Christian theology of religions, thinking theologically about “the meaning and value of other religions” and “the relationship of Christianity to other religions”. He also introduces the discipline’s search for paradigms, identifying the one he adopts (ecclesiocentrism, Christocentrism, theocentrism, realitycentrism¹), and its parameters, identifying the prevalent typology (exclusivism, pluralism, inclusivism). On opposite poles, exclusivism argues that no salvation exists outside Jesus Christ while pluralism insists that different religions are more or less equally valid paths to God/salvation. Inclusivism, more of a middle position, affirms that salvation is available only by and because of Jesus Christ but neither is Christ necessarily restricted to the Christian religion per se.

In the biblical perspective Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen observes that though a thoroughgoing theology of religions is not found in Scripture some important “leads” do exist. Significantly, an ongoing dialectical tension between universalist (God’s love for the world’s religions) and particularist (God’s judgment on the world’s religions) tendencies is evident. History shows “limited openness to other religions” among some early Church Fathers, but an increasing insistence over time on “no salvation outside the Church.” Occasional positive attitudes toward other religions are discernible after the early Church period. The Enlightenment Age definitely changed the direction more toward relativity of religions. But many missionaries and other thinkers in personal contact with non-Christian religions adopted a “fulfillment theory” of religions, arguing that Christianity completes and crowns what was anticipated in embryonic form in other religious faiths.

Christopher Partridge, General Editor, Introduction to World Religions, (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005), 495 pages.

Here is a great introductory overview of the major religions of the world that will be an invaluable resource for scholars, clergy, interested laity, and just about anyone seeking accessible, understandable information regarding the rich religious diversity of humanity. An update of an earlier standard, Introduction to World Religions is lavishly illustrated, well organized, and has helpful charts and graphs depicting important chronological and geographical development or liturgical practices. Sidebar quotes accompanying text discussions are often unusually poignant. A particular strength of this book is that it contains not only expert analyses but also lay testimonies about experiences of devotees. This feature helps readers move beyond the laboratory analyses of academic or intellectual observation to empatheticaly experience an insider’s view of each faith. A wide range of scholarly contributors nonetheless also skillfully relate their subjects. The editorial staff is to be especially commended for an excellent job assuring that the unevenness that can often occur with works of multiple authorships just does not happen. Accordingly, though this book is broad, it is certainly not shallow. Yet it has been kept to a manageable size and has a readable style. For computer buffs a nicely done compact disc is included that makes cruising the contents even easier.

The book begins with a brief discussion of what religion in general really is, and how its contemporary study as a genre has been influenced by the insights of the social sciences. Ancient and indigenous religions are then presented before going on to discuss Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, the religions of East Asia, and Bahá’í Faith. Each faith is respectfully allowed to speak for itself and stand on its own. A generally similar format is applied to each faith, moving from a historical overview to sacred writings, beliefs, rituals and festivals, familial and societal life, and each religion’s status and state in the modern world. Enough flexibility is built into the work, however, to allow today’s world in relation to currents and concerns of postmodernism, globalization, new religious movements, politics and terrorism, and more. A “Rapid Fact Finder” in the back of the book and a thorough index serve well to define key concepts and locate their discussion within the text body.

An important note is needed. Introduction to World Religions is not a book on theology of religions. It does an exceptional job helping us make sense of the make up of so many religions. It does not help us at all to make sense of their meaning from the perspectives of our own respective traditions. For one thing, that is obviously quite outside the purpose of the present book, which is dedicated primarily to overviewing the facts of the faiths. For another, theology of religions, or making sense of other religions in light of one’s own religion, is an extensive process well beyond its scope. A quick look at some of the major ways in which the religions relate to one another, however, would have been helpful. For readers who are devotees of a particular discipline this study is not merely an academic or intellectual exercise but impinges upon personal spirituality in possibly intense ways. An attack of ambiguity or uncertainty is perhaps an understandable and not uncommon occurrence when reading a book in which radically different world views are set side by side. What are we to think of each other, or to feel toward each other? How are we to act with one another? General editor Christopher Partridge has done some good work on theology of religions (e.g., “A Hermeneutic of Hopefulness: A Christian Personalist Response to the Inclusivism of Clark Pinnock”, pp. 184-219, in Tony Gray & Christopher Sinkinson, Reconstructing Theology: A Critical Assessment of the Theology of Clark Pinnock, Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster, 2000), as have several other contributors. Might not these resources have been mined? Interreligious relations should be addressed responsibly in a work bringing so many starkly contrasting conceptions of ultimate reality before us. Frustration about this missing factor is actually aggravated by maximally effective analyses of religion and the religions in relations with a myriad of other fields—cultural, economical, philosophical, political, technological–everything except each another. To work in a few pages or even paragraphs on theological reflections on and responses to the reality of religious pluralism seems pertinent also. Nevertheless, this work does indeed move toward mutual understanding and that too is a major first step forward.

Editors Notes: The Pneuma Review editorial committee asked Brother Richie to tell us about this paper and he said: “This article is a non-provocative but informative piece designed to introduce readers to the theology of religions and invite further reflection. I’ve done quite a bit of work in this area, including a forthcoming article in Pneuma: The Journal for the Society for Pentecostal Studies (Spring ‘06) and an American Academy of Religion panel discussion and presentation (Nov 21 ‘06). I know about the generally cautious attitude of many Pentecostal/charismatics toward ecumenism and/or theology of religions. In a sense, I am sort of that way myself. One of the reasons I thought of sharing this piece is because of its easy going but informative approach. Theology of religions is, whether we like it or not, forcing itself upon us in the face of rampant religious pluralism. We will have to deal with it sometime somehow.”

When I was growing up in a Pentecostal preacher’s family we pretty much had two groups of people in our community: Christians and non-Christians. Basically, that meant churchgoers and non-churchgoers because even the non-Christians had a more or less Christian belief background. Now I am a pastor myself but my how things have changed since Dad’s day! My church members have neighbors and co-workers who have religion enough all right but it is not Christian. Some of my parishioners even have friends or family of other faiths. Increased immigration and cross-cultural homogenization have helped make the United States a religiously diverse nation. ¹ Religious pluralism, in the sense of the reality of a plurality of religions among us, is a fact that must be faced by pastors and church leaders if we are to equip our people to deal with the religious diversity they encounter in their daily lives. The price of Pentecostals ignoring the problem of pluralism is too high to pay. We cannot afford the lost souls that could cost.

Developing a Pentecostal approach to Christians theology of religions has quickly become not only essential but also urgent. A seasoned Pentecostal scholar supplies a helpful definition of theology or religions, particularly Christian theology of religions.

Though extreme approaches unacceptable to most Pentecostals and Evangelicals do exist, the basic thrust of Christian theology of religions need not threaten us. Quite to the contrary, we need to account theologically for the existence of other religions and outline practically a manner of relating to their adherents. In this paper I overview our past attitudes and advance some options for the future if we are to face the challenge of religious pluralism in a mode that has compatibility with our Pentecostal identity.³

Pneuma Review Editor Raul Mock with Tony Richie at the 2014 Society for Pentecostal Studies convention.

Pentecostals have historically tended to exhibit a decidedly evangelistic approach to members of other religions.⁴ As staunch supporters of the missionary agenda of the Great Commission (Matthew 28:18-20), we have mainly viewed adherents of other religions mostly as potential Christians to be won over by our witness of Christ. Unfortunately, sometimes this has degenerated into demonization of non-Christians and of their religious faith and values. Biblical texts warning against the demonic elements of idolatry and false forms of religion (e.g., Deuteronomy 32:17; 1 Corinthians 10:20) have sometimes been indiscriminately applied to all world religions. Accordingly, Pentecostal attitudes toward relations with other religions often have not been very positive.