Who Are Oral Learners?

“An oral learner is someone who chooses to learn and communicate by oral means rather than written. They can be completely illiterate, functionally illiterate, visually impaired, or hearing impaired, or simply part of an oral culture. Oral learners are people all over the globe whose mental processes are primarily influenced by spoken rather than textual forms of communication. Two-thirds of the world’s population are oral learners.” (from Bing search)

Oral communicators are people from all over the globe, from all walks of life and all levels of education who communicate primarily or exclusively through oral, not textual means. Their lives are therefore more likely to be transformed through stories, songs, drama, proverbs and media. (orality.net/about/who-are-oral-communicators)

Scriptures In Use estimates there are an estimated 5.7 billion people who are oral learners. This includes 3 billion adults, 900 million very young children, and 450 million children.

The wonderful folk at the International Orality Network and Visual Story Network among many others have made huge contributions in helping the Church to become focused on developing strategies for oral learners, who, according to ION, constitute at least 80% of the unreached.

A Proclaimer MP3 layer is the “preacher” during this service in rural Uganda

How Does Cybermissions Reach Oral Learners?

Cybermissions reaches oral learners:

1. Through its Internet radio station called Eternity Radio which can be found at EternityRadio.org – this large website has two English language programs (Insights for Eternity – 30 minutes, and Uplifting Moments -15 minutes), an ISOM School of Missions in Sundanese (an Indonesian language), and church-planting training audio modules from Harvestime.
2. Radio programs. We buy time on the airwaves in areas where God is calling us to minister the grace of God (mainly in the Majority World).
3. Solar-powered MP3 player distribution and training
4. Distributing audio on SD cards through our partner BibleSeed
5. And soon we want to start producing audio books that meet Amazon ACX standards.

Why Not Video?

Audio is easy to produce, takes up much less bandwidth that video, costs less to download in rural areas where the Internet is still expensive, and takes up far less space on SD cards and mobile phones. MP3 files are also more private since the listener can use headphones and no one can look over their shoulder to see what they are watching like they can with video (this is important in areas which may be hostile to the gospel).

Reaching the Unreached

If 80% of the unreached are oral learners, and if the only technology they own is a radio and a basic mobile phone, then audio is going to be one of the best media strategies for sharing the gospel.

The editors of this volume, Dave Johnson and Rick Wadholm Jr., are both Assemblies of God ministers. As the back cover of the book indicates Johnson is on the faculty of Asia Pacific Theological Seminary in the Philippines. Wadholm serves at the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary in Springfield, Missouri. Both men have experience in Pentecostal higher education, and both have served in an editorial capacity for a Pentecostal journal.

At the very beginning of the book Rick Wadholm Jr. states that the hope is that this book will be the first in a series (page 1). The plan is for a second volume that will focus on undergraduate Pentecostal Theological Education and a third that will focus on “non-formal theological education” (page 3). He also defines the meaning of key words in the title of the book and how they are used in its pages. The word “Pentecostal” refers to classical Pentecostals and others who are part of the global Spirit-empowered movement (page 2). “Theological Education” means not only the pursuit of academic theological study, but also of keeping missional practice in view (page 3). The term “Majority World” was used, at least in part, because it more fairly represents God’s work in the world and does not limit it to a particular section of the globe (pages 3-4)

In this book the editors have gathered together a number of writers to address the subject of Pentecostal Theological Education. After the introduction by Wadholm there are ten chapters, one written by each of the following contributors: Gary Munson, Vee J. Doyle-Davidson, Amos Yong, Dave Johnson, Josfin Raj, Daniel Topf, Peter White, Jeremiah Campbell, Temesgen Kahsay, and Dean D. O’Keefe with Jacqueline N. Grey. In the chapters they have written you will find information about Pentecostal Theological Education from Asia, Africa, and Latin America (page 4-5).

For example, in the first chapter written by Gary Munson, he mentions the problem of international students who have been educated in the West having to transfer what they learned in the West to their own cultures when they return home (page 7). The author also speaks of the problem of transferring Western theological paradigms to other contexts in the world when starting theological schools in these other countries (pages 7-8). In addition, there is the imbalance of power between the northern church and the southern church with regard to finances, publishing, and other things (page 9). Munson also points out the fact that majority world cultures value biblical narratives more than Westerners do (pages 10-11).

This book is an eye-opener, it can get readers to think about things that they might not normally consider. The fact is that, even in the Christian church, not everyone thinks, learns, or values everything in the same way that many of us in the West do. Knowing this in advance can help us as we seek to relate to, and offer Pentecostal Theological Education to people in, or from, other parts of the world. There is much to be learned in this volume. The one thing I wish were included in this book is a list of brief biographies of the contributors. I knew something about a few of the contributors, but I did not know all of them.

I would recommend this book to people who are interested in Global Christianity, missions, are considering becoming missionaries, or are missions’ executives. I think this book can help remove some of the hindrances in the educational process. I look forward to reading the other volumes in this series when they become available.

Reviewed by John Lathrop

Visit https://www.aptspress.org/ for a sample chapter.

John MacArthur, Strange Fire: The Danger of Offending the Holy Spirit with Counterfeit Worship (Nashville, TN: Nelson Books, 2013), 333 pages, ISBN 9781400206414.

Introduction

In this highly polemical book, John MacArthur argues that as an aggressive though “counterfeit” form of Christian spirituality, the global Pentecostal-Charismatic movement is neither founded on nor representative of orthodox Christian doctrine. He claims it has infiltrated and is undermining orthodox Christianity with “counterfeit” theologies, worship beliefs, and practices—all emerging from its heretical doctrine of the Holy Spirit. MacArthur’s stated purpose for writing this book is to therefore galvanize the “evangelical church” in concerted condemnation against its existence, and honour the Holy Spirit by ridding the evangelical church of the movement’s influence, thus leading to the recovery of correct doctrines of the Holy Spirit.

Having read some highly constructive reviews and responses emerging on MacArthur’s book, in this review, I will hopefully avoid covering matters already well addressed, and provide critique on issues perhaps not adequately touched. I will begin first however with a thematic survey on the book’s content.

Survey

In sermonic style, MacArthur begins his treatise by setting forth the Pentateuchal narrative on Nadab and Abihu’s priestly offering of “strange fire” and God’s judgement against them, as his controlling metaphor for exposing the demonically sourced errors of Pentecostal/Charismatic spirituality that have infiltrated Evangelical Christianity. MacArthur then structures his book into three parts. In Part One (“Confronting a Counterfeit Revival”), MacArthur pursues two basic objectives. First (chapter 1) is to establish that the “systemic” reason for the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement’s existence as a false form of Christian spirituality, is its elevation of “religious experience over biblical truth.” (pp. 16-17). He then argues that at the heart of this aberration is the movement’s historical foundation upon a “deficient soteriology,” which conversely fosters this elevation of experience. Here, MacArthur directly blames the soteriological themes of 19th century Holiness Movement teachings (p. 27).

MacArthur moreover charges that this deficient soteriology under girded the preaching of early Pentecostal leaders, particularly that of Charles Parham. While stressing the dubious nature of Parham’s life and ministry, MacArthur argues that we acknowledge him as the originating founder of the Pentecostal/Charismatic movement—in order to jeopardize the theological “legitimacy” of the whole movement (p. 26-28). MacArthur moreover argues that equally responsible for the “theological foundations” of the movement is E.W. Kenyon, whose seminal Word of Faith doctrine MacArthur stresses, is rooted in a synthesis of various early 20th century “New Thought” metaphysical teachings (pp. 28-31). Hence, in MacArthur’s construal of Pentecostal historiography, Parham and Kenyon together “are responsible for the theological foundations upon which the entire charismatic system is built,” and together represent its dubious “historical roots.” Hence, in MacArthur’s construal of Pentecostal historiography, the doctrinal and moral errors of Parham and Kenyon together establish the dubious theological underpinnings of Pentecostalism and the Charismatic Movement (p. 31).

MacArthur’s second pursued objective of Part One (chapters 3 and 4) is to critique Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality via Jonathan Edwards’ “distinguishing marks” of genuine spiritual renewal (e.g., “The Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God”). MacArthur thereby argues that Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality is neither birthed by nor honouring to the Holy Spirit. To argue this MacArthur alleges that the movement shifts people away from Christ by its false doctrines, worship practices and experiences wrongly attributed to the Holy Spirit (pp. 53), and through its fostering of immorality via its emphasis on miracles and prosperity gospel teaching. (pp. 60, 65-66). Crucial also to this critique, is MacArthur’s allegations that Pentecostal/Charismatic spirituality moreover undermines Scriptural authority by encouraging believers to seek extra biblical revelation (pp. 67-68), thus elevating false experiences of God over Scriptural and doctrinal truth (pp. 71-72). Finally, MacArthur charges that Pentecostal-Charismatic spirituality fails to produce genuine love amongst believers (pp. 74-76), which MacArthur roots to the movement’s narcissistic blending of “mysticism” (via charismatic worship practices) to the “materialism of prosperity theology” (p. 78). MacArthur concluding verdict is that Pentecostals and Charismatics are “playing with strange fire” (p. 81).

An excerpt from Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts, by Craig S. Keener. From Pneuma Review Fall 2013.

From the introduction to Part 3, “Miracle Accounts beyond Antiquity”

Pages 209-210

The principle of analogy once used to argue against all ancient miracles (either the occurrence of some sorts of extranormal phenomena or their supernatural causation) now undermines that very argument. In Hume’s day, many Protestant theologians distinguished sharply between biblical and postbiblical miracles as part of their anti-Catholic polemic. Their polemic played into the Humean argument against ancient miracles based on the lack of many comparable modern claims. Many theologians in turn accommodated this nonmiraculous approach, further emphasizing the lack of postbiblical miracles and eventually often renouncing miracles altogether.

Today, however, abundant claims of miracles, particularly from the Majority World, challenge Hume’s skepticism about the existence of many credible eyewitnesses. Hume demanded “a sufficient number” of witnesses of unquestioned integrity and intelligence who would have much to lose by testifying falsely.¹ In today’s academic climate, many who testify to miracles have much to lose even by testifying truly; but I shall first respond to Hume’s quantitative demand. In contrast to the environment assumed by Hume, today hundreds of millions of people claim to have witnessed miracles. Moreover, eyewitnesses claim what they believe are miracles even in the West, and this has been the case through most of history, even when Hume framed his argument within the theological framework of academic circles often reticent to acknowledge miraculous claims. Some of these eyewitness claims involve even the healing of blindness, the raising of the dead, and nature miracles. I will treat some of these subjects in turn in subsequent chapters: claims from the Majority World (chs. 7–9); Western history (ch. 10); the modern West (ch. 11); and some specifically dramatic claims like those involving blindness, death, or nature (ch. 12).

Virtually no one would suggest that all claims reflect clearly authentic miracles (see discussion in ch. 13). Nevertheless, such claims, however we interpret them, clearly exist on an eyewitness level and hence need not be excluded from first- and second-generation testimony in the Gospels and Acts. Statistics suggest the vast numbers of claims; my primary interest in chapters 7–12 is to illustrate some of the variety of sorts of cases involved in them. While the primary point of these chapters is not the interpretation of events, some of these reports may have a bearing on that question. At the least, given the vast number and variety of claims, one can no longer simply take for granted that uniform human experience a priori excludes extranormal events for which many observers would find a specifically theistic interpretation particularly persuasive (see discussion in chs. 13–15).

PR

This excerpt is from Craig S. Keener, Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts, 2 volumes, Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, 2011. Used by permission. All rights to this material are reserved. Material is not to be reproduced, scanned, copied, or distributed in any printed or electronic form without written permission from Baker Publishing Group.

Footnotes appear in the full digital issue of Pneuma Review Fall 2013 and in the book from which this excerpt is derived.

Craig Keener and M. Daniel Carroll Rodas, eds., Global Voices: Reading the Bible in the Majority World (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2013), 144 pages, ISBN 9781619700093.

The chapters that make up this book were originally papers that were presented at a meeting of the Institute for Biblical Research which was held in San Francisco, California in 2011. The authors of these chapters are scholars who come from a number of different ethnic backgrounds. The contributors to this book are: J. Ayodeji Adewuya, M. Daniel Carroll Rodas, Daniel K. Darko, David A. deSilva, Nijay Gupta, Craig S. Keener, Grant LeMarquand, Barbara M. Leung Lai, Osvaldo Padilla, Chloe Sun, Edwin M. Yamauchi, and K. K. Yeo.

The purpose of this book is to demonstrate the value and importance of multi-ethnic readings of Scripture. Multi-ethnic reading of Scripture means that Christians in one culture, or from one part of the world, listen to believers from other cultures or parts of the world, in order to learn how they “hear the text.” Such readings can help us gain a greater understanding of the Bible. All of us, regardless of who we are, read the Bible from a particular frame of reference; our culture, upbringing, etc. As a result, we may learn some very important things, but we may also miss some other important things. If we listen to one another then multi-ethnic readings of Scripture can help us draw out the riches of truth found in God’s Word.

A couple of examples from the book may be helpful at this point. Reading from a Hispanic diaspora perspective, M. Daniel Carroll Rodas alerts us to the possibility that Abram’s deception, regarding his wife Sarai (Gen. 12), may be an example of just what one may do in a potentially dangerous situation in order to cross a border. Those of us who have never crossed a border, especially in potentially dangerous circumstances, may miss this in the text because it has not been a part of our experience. The second example comes from Barbara M. Leung Lai. In her chapter she views Daniel’s experiences as instructive to us as a survival manual. She looks at Daniel’s private life and how that impacts his public life. Her examination of the biblical text is very insightful. These examples show us that multi-cultural readings of Scripture can help us to uncover our blind spots and see truth that we might otherwise miss.

This book brings a very important topic to the surface, one that needs to be addressed, because Christianity is a global religion. Multi-ethnic readings of Scripture are especially important because Christianity is growing by leaps and bounds in the majority world. I did not find this book especially easy to read. However, I think that the main point that the book makes is vitally important. We have the Bible, and we have the Spirit, but we need one another as well. The Bible is best interpreted in the community of faith, in the global community of faith.

Reviewed by John P. Lathrop

An excerpt from Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts, by Craig S. Keener. From Pneuma Review Fall 2013.

From Part 3, “Miracle Accounts beyond Antiquity”

Chapter 7, “Majority World Perspectives”

Pages 238-241

For these countries alone, and for Pentecostals and charismatics in these countries alone, the estimated total of people claiming to have “witnessed divine healings” comes out to somewhere around 202,141,082, that is, about two hundred million. Among Pentecostals, an average of 73.6 percent claim to have witnessed or experienced divine healing, and among charismatics the proportion is 52 percent; given estimates of possibly half a billion Pentecostals and charismatics worldwide, we might be looking at claims of closer to three hundred million among them alone.¹⁵⁴ My estimates extrapolate on the assumption that numbers and percentages above are roughly accurate; in fact, all such figures are merely estimates, but they give us the best current ballpark figure to work from. Even if for some reason we later estimated only one-third of these figures (a much greater margin of error than seems likely), the numbers are already enormous even before we add (below) the noncharismatic claims.

Lest I be misunderstood, I must emphasize that in noting the prevalence of healing claims, I am not offering a blanket endorsement of all the beliefs on all issues that command majorities among these groups (elsewhere in the same survey), including beliefs about healings. I am also not suggesting that all claims of cures are authentic; still less am I suggesting that none of the claims could have alternative explanations,¹⁵⁵ though from my research I suspect that the majority of those who claim to have witnessed some miracles could specify some fairly substantive claims.¹⁵⁶ My point here is simply to invite attention to what this survey indicates about the vast numbers of people worldwide who claim to have witnessed supernaturally effected healings. The examples that I offer in the following chapters may make this observation more concrete, but my examples obviously pale before the statistics.

Such Claims Not Limited to Pentecostals

What may be more interesting in this survey, however, is the category of “other Christians,” with somewhere around 39 percent in these countries claiming to have “witnessed divine healings.” That is, more than one-third of Christians worldwide who do not identify themselves as Pentecostal or charismatic claim to have “witnessed divine healings.” Presumably many of these claimants believe that they have witnessed more than a single case. Note that these are not simply people who say that they believe that supernatural healing occurs; these are people who say that they believe that they have witnessed or experienced it.¹⁵⁷

Of course many of these claims would not withstand critical scrutiny, and presumably an even higher percentage would fail to persuade others predisposed not to believe. But those who would simply reject all healing claims today because Hume argued that such claims are too rare to be believable should keep in mind that they are dismissing, almost without argument, the claimed experiences of at least a few hundred million people. (Even if one were to err extremely on the side of modesty, one could easily speak boldly of “tens of millions” of claims.) In contrast to starting assumptions on which Hume built his case, it is no longer feasible to consider such claims rare.

As noted above, the greatest concentration of these claims is in Africa, Asia, and Latin America rather than in the West, though in chapter 11 I shall note abundant examples from the West as well. Non-Pentecostal Western Christian workers active in such areas often report dramatic phenomena similar to those reported by Pentecostals.¹⁵⁸ Worldview is probably one important factor in generating more faith recoveries in many non-Western regions;¹⁵⁹ for example, nearly a decade ago one of my students, a sincere Baptist pastor from India, complained that Americans he prayed for were rarely healed, but almost everyone he prayed for in north India was healed.¹⁶⁰

Accurate or inaccurate, reports of prophetism, dreams, visions, and healings (sometimes of incurable, terminal illnesses) on a massive scale characterize many areas where Christianity is expanding rapidly and with intense religious fervor among non-Christian populations.¹⁶¹ Although some¹⁶² Westerners historically used cultural dominance from colonial cultures or (especially in Latin America) force to spread Christianization, many indigenous evangelists today instead embrace the missiological model they encounter in Acts and believe that they are following Paul’s model.¹⁶³ One Western charismatic missiologist argues that whereas some Asian Christians appreciated Western missionaries bringing teaching about God, many Asian missionaries are now demonstrating God’s power through miracles.¹⁶⁴ Another writer recounts that missionaries to one region in Africa who merely left behind Gospels returned to find a flourishing church with nt-like miracles happening daily, “because there had been no missionaries to teach that such things were not to be taken literally.”¹⁶⁵ Indigenous readings of Scripture often noticed patterns there “that the missionaries did not want [local believers] to see.”¹⁶⁶

Although the most visible growth has occurred in the last three decades,¹⁶⁷ already in 1981, at one large U.S. seminary with students from many nations, Christiaan De Wet of South Africa wrote a thesis on signs involved in church growth around the world. He surveyed more than 350 theses representing most of the world and interviewed countless missionaries. He complained, “My research has turned up so much material on signs and wonders that are happening and churches that are growing, that it is impossible to use all of it.”¹⁶⁸ He noted that miracle claims help drive Christian growth in many parts of the world.

PR

This excerpt is from Craig S. Keener, Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts, 2 volumes, Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, 2011. Used by permission. All rights to this material are reserved. Material is not to be reproduced, scanned, copied, or distributed in any printed or electronic form without written permission from Baker Publishing Group.

Footnotes appear in the full digital issue of Pneuma Review Fall 2013 and in the book from which this excerpt is derived.

An excerpt from Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts, by Craig S. Keener. From Pneuma Review Fall 2013.

From Part 3, “Miracle Accounts beyond Antiquity”

Chapter 7, “Majority World Perspectives”

Pages 214-219

A Multicultural Approach

Social scientists have noted that, despite a variety of interpretations, “people from all cultures relate stories of spontaneous, miraculous cures,” based on experiences that they have had.¹⁵ This observation has some relevance for how we approach biblical narratives involving healings. As Justo Gonzalez remarks in his commentary on Acts, the frequent denial of narratives’ historicity because of their miracle reports employs a questionable epistemological criterion. Bultmann denied that modern people who use scientific inventions can believe in miracles,¹⁶ yet “what Bultmann declares to be impossible is not just possible, but even frequent.” Miracles are, Gonzalez points out, affirmed in most Latino churches, despite the influence of the mechanistic worldview from much Western thought.¹⁷ Cuban Lutheran bishop Ismael Laborde Figueras notes that it is hard to find Latin American Christians who do not believe in miracles.¹⁸ Noted Latina theologian Loida Martell-Otero likewise emphasizes prayers for healing in the Latina community,¹⁹ and notes that Latinas’ experience helps shape their way of reading Scripture.²⁰

Some Asian theologians have likewise complained that the approach of Bultmann’s school is irrelevant to Asian realities. Asian worldviews, Methodist bishop Hwa Yung notes, affirm miracles, angels, and hostile spirits.²¹ Indeed, pace Bultmann’s rhetoric, most religious Westerners also fail to see any contradiction between miracles and the use of modern science²²—including a number of scientists.²³ “Modern” worldviews are too diverse to fit any one paradigm,²⁴ and despite his cultural assumption that his argument is true, Bultmann never provides a reason for it.²⁵ Cross-cultural studies suggest that socialization rather than exposure to science accounts for most of the skepticism in some circles.²⁶

Whereas fewer than 18 percent of Christians in 1900 lived outside Europe and North America, today more than 60 percent do, and an estimated 70 percent will by 2025.²⁷ As the center of world Christianity has shifted to the Global South, the dominant Christian perspectives in the world have shifted with it.²⁸ Although far from being the only groups involved in this shift, charismatic and Pentecostal forms of Christianity have been in the forefront of the recent expansion of Christianity, reportedly growing six times over in the three decades from 1970 to 2000.²⁹ Not surprisingly, readings of Scripture in the Global South often contrast starkly with modern Western critics’ readings.³⁰ These readings from other social locations often shock Westerners not only because others believe the early Christian miracle narratives to be plausible but also because these readers often take these narratives as a model for their ministries.

Thus Western scholar of global Christianity Philip Jenkins notes that in general Christianity in the Global South is quite interested in “the immediate workings of the supernatural, through prophecy, visions, ecstatic utterances, and healing.”³¹ Such an approach, closer to the early Christian worldview than modern Western culture is, appeals to many traditional non-Western cultures.³² Hwa Yung, the above-mentioned bishop of the Methodist Church in Malaysia, notes that the charismatic, Pentecostal character of Majority World churches reflects not so much direct influence by Pentecostals or charismatics as simply the worldview of the majority of humanity. They have simply never embraced the Western, mechanistic, naturalistic Enlightenment worldview that rejects the supernatural.³³

Referring to the analogous issue of hostile suprahuman forces, noted scholar of African religion John S. Mbiti complains that most Western scholars “expose their own ignorance, false ideas, exaggerated prejudices and a derogatory attitude” that fail to take seriously genuine experiences pervasive in Africa.³⁴ African psychologist Regina Eya warns that all claims to extranormal healing are dismissed by many Western scholars, the credible along with the spurious, because of the inappropriate application of traditional Western scientific paradigms to matters for which they were not designed.³⁵ Danny McCain, a Western professor who has spent more than two decades teaching in Nigeria, notes that “nearly all African Christians and most African theologians,” regardless of their views on other critical issues, reject Western antisupernaturalism. He acknowledges the existence of some false claims, but complains that “it is arrogant and unprofessional for Western scholars to outright reject the miraculous, totally ignoring the testimonies of thousands of people,” based simply on their own lack of such experience.³⁶

In addition to differing in their paradigms involving paranormal phenomena, many other cultures are in general more holistic, expecting spiritual beliefs to impinge on physical needs in ways that Western culture has often found uncomfortable.³⁷ For example, the concern of religion for health in traditional African thought³⁸ is likely a factor in the growth of African Independent Churches (AICs), most of which include a heavy focus on healing.³⁹ Newer Pentecostal and charismatic churches are also filling the same niche, sometimes at the expense of older AICs.⁴⁰ Because African culture has always connected healing with religion, African Christian movements that appropriated the biblical connection of healing with religion have grown, often challenging churchgoers in more Western churches who were secretly consulting diviners and traditional practitioners.⁴¹ Many newer churches have grown in Africa at the expense of more traditional ones, especially where the latter have refused to engage local cultures’ reigning cosmologies.⁴² In some areas, older mainline churches under indigenous leadership have likewise emphasized healing in a manner relevant to their African context.⁴³ Western observers may appraise such developments positively or negatively,⁴⁴ but what is minimally clear is that Africans from various belief systems are engaging issues that Westerners often ignore. At least some aspects of their interest in physical health are more in keeping with biblical cosmologies than much traditional Western Christian minimizing of the body is.⁴⁵

Regardless of how we interpret miracle reports and other supernatural claims, their frequency in various sectors of today’s world indicates that large numbers of intelligent, sincere people believe that such cures are occurring today, including through their own prayers. This is true even in the modern West; how much more likely would this be the case in a generally less skeptical culture like the world of the first Christians? There is no intrinsically historical reason to think that the Gospel writers had to invent such miraculous claims, or that Luke had to invent them even in the eyewitness “we” material in Acts (Acts 16:18; 20:10; 28:4–6, 8–9; cf. 21:4, 11, 19).⁴⁶ Nor is there any reason to insist that the reports must have originated in a reporter’s deception or imagination.

PR

This excerpt is from Craig S. Keener, Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts, 2 volumes, Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, 2011. Used by permission. All rights to this material are reserved. Material is not to be reproduced, scanned, copied, or distributed in any printed or electronic form without written permission from Baker Publishing Group.

Footnotes appear in the full digital issue of Pneuma Review Fall 2013 and in the book from which this excerpt is derived.