The emergence of modern Pentecostalism has been characterized in part by its “restorationist impulse,”¹ an impulse which has led many of its adherents to seek the restoration of the attributes of the early New Testament Church. Among these attributes are the gifts of the Holy Spirit described in Ephesians 4, Romans 12 and 1 Corinthians 12. These gifts are significant to Pentecostals not for their own sake but for their mission as “a people called and empowered (Acts 1:8) to be fellow workers with Christ in His redemptive mission.”²

Before going further, it is important for me to share that I also believe in the operation of the gifts of the Holy Spirit in the Church today. But too often the ministry of the Holy Spirit is neglected in favor of an all-out-pursuit of personal “miraculous” experiences. I cannot dispute the importance of individual experiences with God in the life of the believer; indeed, such experiences have resulted in the salvation of many, and the explosive growth for Pentecostalism globally. But the primary role of the Holy Spirit is to bear witness to the Word of God, as Christ stated: “the Spirit of truth who proceeds from the Father, He will testify about me” (Jn 15:26).

Presently, the experiential nature of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has contributed to their engagement of a dangerous perspective which accords practically the same weight to spiritual or miraculous experiences as to the Word of God. This paper will discuss the implications of this experiential paradigm for current Pentecostal praxis with respect to revivals, evangelistic crusades and other missiological functions.

The Experiential Paradigm

It is the work of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2 that has most profoundly influenced the development of modern Pentecostalism. The baptism in the Holy Spirit and the gifts of the Holy Spirit, or charismata, are central to Pentecostal self-identity and operate as major differentiators between Pentecostal and Charismatic groups and the rest of Christendom. An unintended side effect of this belief in spiritual gifts and American cultural influences is the emergence of a more experiential Christianity,³ which I will refer to as the “experiential paradigm.” This paradigm is problematic for two major reasons. First, it fractures the relationship between the Word of God and the Spirit of God, by attempting to evaluate spiritual matters independently of the Word. Secondly, it allows personal spiritual experience to become quasi-authoritative, effectively rendering it equal to the Word of God.

Walker notes that large groups often experience behavioral phenomena which may “feel” like the work of the Holy Spirit, as when musicians and actors describe “the energy from the crowd” at a concert or other large-scale event. Another phenomena is that large crowds often draw performers and other entertainers, which could lead to spiritual counterfeits or excesses. An example of this might be the person who desires to become an actor but suddenly feels “called” to ministry because they feel certain that God has “destined them for the spotlight.” Closely related to this is the “star” system of Charismatic leadership in which individuals with considerable personal charisma are afforded undue deference by Christian believers on the basis of personality—a sort of spiritual popularity contest, if you will. Walker’s final phenomena is the lack of awe that these miraculous events seem to inspire toward God. Not only do these miracles generally not result in the glorification of God, they often serve to diminish the public perception of God to those who do not already know Him.

Steven M. Studebaker, ed., Defining Issues in Pentecostalism: Classical and Emergent, McMaster Theological Studies Series 1 (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock, 2008), 207 pages, ISBN 9781556358432.

Studebaker brings together a number of significant points of discussion from a forum on Pentecostal theology held at McMaster Divinity College in 2007. The impressive list of participants includes among others Clark Pinnock, Frank Macchia, Amos Yong, and Roger Stronstad, all well-known contributors in the discussion of Pentecostal topics. This collection describes itself as an introduction to classical doctrines of Pentecostalism and significant contemporary debates. The list of topics is divided into issues concerning theological and biblical studies, the former including Spirit baptism (Macchia), theology of the religions (Yong), theology of grace (Studebaker), and divine attributes (Gabriel), the latter addressing the charismatic theology of Luke (Stronstad), Pauline Theology of the Spirit (Westfall), and a discussion of the Spirit and suffering (Mittelstadt). An epilogue by Clark Pinnock and a study guide on Pentecostal resources complete the volume.

In many ways, this collection is a trailblazer for the rapid development of Pentecostal theology. Comprehensive studies on Pentecostal thought and praxis have been introduced to the market only in the last three decades, and only the last few years have shown a concerted effort among Pentecostals and the wider ecumenical community to come to terms with the issues that define Pentecostalism. In that sense, Studebaker does not aim at a comprehensive collection in this volume but rather at a concise approach to the issues that have influenced the formation of Classical Pentecostalism and that continue to shape the Pentecostal movement in its global dimensions.

This tension between the established North American origins of the Pentecostal movement and the diversity of global manifestations of Pentecostalism worldwide gives life to this collection of essays. The label “introduction” is applicable to this collection insofar as many of the essays initiate a conversation that the authors have engaged already on a much broader level in their academic publications. Macchia’s essay, for example, opens up to a wider discussion in his book, Baptized in the Spirit, Yong has addressed the question of a theology of religions in a number of his monographs, and Stronstad’s essay is a revisiting of his original thesis on the charismatic theology of Luke’s Gospel. Those who have not yet read these texts or have been hesitant to approach the more academic discussion will find in this volume a welcome initiation to some of the central themes.

Steven M. Studebaker is Associate Professor of Systematic and Historical Theology at McMaster Divinity College.

On the other hand, it is also the essays of emerging young scholars that breathe life into the collection. Studebaker’s own contribution to a Pentecostal theology of grace is an excellent example of the new Pentecostal scholarship that has begun to emerge in recent years. His essay not only speaks of personal experience but engages the Pentecostal self-understanding in an informed dialogue with other theological traditions. Studebaker’s own theological training at a Catholic institution (Marquette University) reflects the maturing of Pentecostal scholars who are willing and able to engage theological issues with an informed, ecumenical perspective that does not shy away from the historical and philosophical contexts that have shaped the debate. At the same time, many of the authors are frank in their criticism of their own Pentecostal tradition and urge Pentecostals on to develop a more comprehensive and engaging theology that overcomes internal Pentecostal debates. The essays in this volume are far from short-sighted. And it is perhaps the far-sighted vision of the authors that presents a weak point in the collection.

History teaches that the supernatural gifts of the Holy Spirit did not cease with the first apostles—the early church demonstrated signs and wonders of God’s work in the world.

Cessationism teaches that the types of signs and wonders evidenced in the New Testament are not for today. The reasons given by cessationists are varied, and the internet is full of websites dedicated to this doctrine. However, many scholars have written in favor of signs and wonders being for today, and they have shown that the arguments against signs and wonders today are weak and biased. Some of the most impressive examples of polemical writings in favor of signs and wonders today include The Kingdom and the Power, edited by Dr. Gary Greig and Kevin Springer; Surprised by the Power of the Spirit, by Dr. Jack Deere; Confronting Powerless Christianity, by Dr. Charles Kraft; On the Cessation of the Charismata: The Protestant Polemic on Post-Biblical Miracles, by Dr. Jon Ruthven; just to name a few.

In this article, I want to take you back in history and present to you an argument for signs and wonders revealing that the miraculous works done by Jesus and the apostles were also done by the early church—thus showing that the main thesis of cessationists, signs and wonders passed away with the last of the apostles, is false. I will limit my discussion to exorcism and healing, and I will quote writers from the 1st-3rd centuries who have written about continuing signs and wonders. I will also add commentary where I feel it may be helpful and relevant for today’s church.

All of the quotes are from the 10 volume The Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson between 1885-1887.¹ They are cited in A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs, edited by David W. Bercot.² The citations use the convention of “volume number. page number”; thus 1.200 indicates a quote is from volume 1, page 200. I will use the notation of ANF 1.200 to designate a quote’s location.

Exorcism

One of the main themes I found in the early church writings I examined was exorcism. In the New Testament, exorcism is a sign, wonder, or miracle, bringing deliverance to an individual who is demonically oppressed or possessed. Let’s first examine some of the evidence that exorcism continued on, past the apostolic age.

Justin Martyr
Image: Wikimedia Commons

Justin Martyr, c.155 (or shortly thereafter)

“For numberless demoniacs throughout the whole world, and in your city, many of our Christian men exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, have healed and do heal, rendering helpless and driving the possessing devils out of the men, though they could not be cured by all the other exorcists, and those who used incantations and drugs.” ANF 1.190

“We call Him Helper and Redeemer. Even the demons fear the power of His name at this day, when they are exorcised in the name of Jesus Christ, … they are defeated.” ANF 1.209

“He said, ‘I give unto you power to tread on serpents and scorpions.’ … And now we have all the demons and evil spirits subjected to us, when we exorcise them.” ANF 1.236

Becoming agents of reconciliation that glorify Jesus, not compromise His Gospel.

Introduction

Tony Richie at the 2011 convention of the Society for Pentecostal Studies.

An especially fruitful interfaith dialogue I was recently privileged to participate in released a cooperative statement containing several descriptive suggestions about the nature of religion and the religions. Among other things, it admitted that “religion has often been used, rather misused, to shed blood, spread bigotry and defend divisive and discriminatory socio-political practices”. That is sad but all-too-true. It also insisted, however, on the “necessity and usefulness” of interreligious dialogue “for promoting peace, harmony and conflict-transformation” in our world today.¹ And that, I think, is true too. I am therefore both challenged and encouraged at the present opportunity to wrestle through these issues together with religious others by focusing on themes of forgiveness and reconciliation among the religions from my perspective as a Pentecostal Christian. And I am convinced global Pentecostalism may have some unique contributions to make to this conversation.

Extinguishing the Forbidden Fire of Sectarian Strife

In the context of sectarian strife, really full-blown religious and racial prejudice and tension between Jews and Samaritans, two of Jesus’ disciples desired to call fire down from Heaven to consume their competitors. Jesus firmly forbade them. Some ancient manuscripts add an explanatory comment from Jesus that “You do not know what kind of spirit you are of, for the Son of Man did not come to destroy men’s lives, but to save them” (Lu 9:56 NIV margin). Biblical exegete Craig Evans opines that the explanation “certainly captures the essential point of the passage.” According to Evans, the episode “portrays a loving and gracious Lord who does not seek vengeance”.² In other words, Jesus wills forgiveness and reconciliation among rival religions and the Spirit he has given his disciples wills us in the same way. With its appreciation for pneumatological nuances, Pentecostalism’s theology and spirituality ought unquestionably to guide us in the same direction.

Alexander Jensen, Theological Hermeneutics (London: SCM, 2007), 237 pages, ISBN 9780334029014.

Alexander Jensen’s Theological Hermeneutics is a historical introduction to theological hermeneutics, which Jensen defines as the way in which the problem of understanding has been addressed (2). The book surveys key theological hermeneuts and movements from antiquity, to the watershed that was the Enlightenment, up to the present postmodern context. Jensen argues that theological hermeneutics must be critical (214).

Beginning with his discussion on “Hermeneutics in Antiquity,” Jensen convincingly argues that criticism has always been present throughout the history of hermeneutics. Indeed, he shows that despite the popular impression of pre-moderns as not being critical interpreters, there have always been critical interpretations from antiquity until the Enlightenment. For example, because a literal interpretation of the text was not always amenable to interpreters, the criticism of allegorical interpretation dominated antiquity. And critical methods were developed to criticize allegorical interpretation.

Perhaps the most pivotal insight into hermeneutical thinking and criticism, however, came about as a result of Augustine’s recognition that language is imperfect and the spoken word does not perfectly convey one’s thought. In other words, the listener or reader will never arrive at the speaker’s or author’s thought, but can only approximate it (47). Jensen appropriately emphasizes that this understanding has guided hermeneutical thinking to the present, that is, except for a notable exception during the Enlightenment era.

Alexander S. Jensen is Senior Lecturer in Systematic Theology at Murdock University in Perth, Western Australia.

Before discussing this exception, however, Jensen’s survey highlights the fact that the discovery of errors in authoritative texts led Medieval and Reformation interpreters back to the sources (ad fontes). So the Bible and the Patristic tradition were used to critique texts. Therefore, Reformation hermeneutics, commonly considered to be based on sola scriptura also had its critical element of the “purified” tradition.

But a notable exception to the need for critical hermeneutics occurred during the Enlightenment. To be sure, the Enlightenment did usher in the Modern era of explicit historical criticism attributable to the development of Baconian scientific method, and Cartesian rationalism that suggested human reason is the ultimate authority. However, the realism of the Scottish Enlightenment and Thomas Reid’s “common sense” philosophy, again, contrary to the prevailing Augustinian understanding of the hermeneutical process, considered the spoken word to be representative of one’s thought. So, critical reflection was not needed for understanding. But, agreeing with the Augustinian tradition, and in light of his thesis, Jensen considers this common sense to be naive and a denial of one’s presuppositions and prejudices in interpretation (85).

Despite Reid’s “common sense,” the post-Enlightenment era, consistent with Augustinian thought, also evidences the continuous presence of critical hermeneutics. For, Friedrich Schleiermacher advocates both a grammatical and psychological critique of texts. William Dilthey’s historicism critiques texts in their historical contexts. The so-called (by Paul Ricoeur) “masters of suspicion,” Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Sigmund Freud, prescribes hermeneutical criticism because ideology, the will to power, and the author’s unconscious, respectively, may be the driving force behind texts.

Michael Bergunder, The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century, Studies in the History of Christian Missions (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2008), 392 pages, ISBN 9780802827340.

There will be several groups who will thank Michael Bergunder, professor of history of religions and mission studies at Heidelberg, for writing this book. First, historians of the Pentecostal/charismatic movements will find this work a treasure trove of the major persons and places of South Indian Pentecostalism. The introductory chapter lays out the global/non-Western perspective that marks so much of contemporary historiography of Pentecostal/charismatic history. The first section of the book in six chapters covers the origins and development of Pentecostal churches in South India. It covers both western missionary efforts (such as the Assemblies of God and Church of God) as well as indigenous churches (such as the Indian Pentecostal Church and the Ceylon Pentecostal Mission).

Second, Bergunder’s book will be important to Pentecostal/charismatic pastors, evangelists, and missionaries. In his section, “Beliefs and Practices,” he draws on an extensive reservoir of personal interviews to portray a vibrant if often complex Indian Pentecostal spirituality and ecclesiology. Though there is a definite Asian sub-continent flavor to how Pentecostalism adapted to India, there is a core of theological and practical measures that will resonate with any Pentecostal/charismatic minister and believer anywhere in the world. In the twenty-first century, western Pentecostal/charismatics will need to turn to global Pentecostal/charismatic movements in order to define of who they are.

Third, students of Pentecostal/charismatic movements will find this book a model of careful research, clear presuppositions, and honest assessments. The book has three appendices: (1) Seventy-nine brief biographical sketches of both foreign missionaries and national leaders; (2) lists of the leaderships of the Indian Pentecostal Church, Ceylon Pentecostal Mission, Church of God, and Assemblies of God; and (3) six pages of church statistics from 1930 to 2000. There are fourteen photos inserted between the two main sections of the book. Before a thorough index, there is a ten-page list of people that Bergunder interviewed and a valuable thirty-five page bibliography.

As we progress through a second century of the Pentecostal/charismatic movements, the need for an accurate and unbiased history calls for many others to follow Bergunder’s lead.

Reviewed by Malcolm R. Brubaker

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The world’s leading expert in the subject of exorcism in the Jesus tradition has now turned to exorcism in the early church, covering the period from the earliest traditions to the end of the second century (the last figure he treats [Galen] died in the year 199). This volume is as detailed and as apparently exhaustive as Twelftree’s work on the Jesus tradition.

Twelftree discusses, in turn, exorcistic narratives and ideas in Paul, Q, Mark, Luke-Acts, Matthew, “1 Peter, Hebrews, and James” (considered together), Johannine Christianity, the apostolic fathers and second-century apologists, and Mark 16:9-20, as well as a number of second-century critics of the faith. Much of the material on the gospels, of course, overlaps with Twelftree’s earlier work on the historical Jesus. Twelftree finds that, in many cases, exorcism serves a theological end greater than the simple depiction of Jesus as an expert exorcist, as when he interprets the exorcisms in Matthew as the inbreaking of God’s kingdom, yet finds in Matthew evidence of disagreement with the practice of exorcism in the late first-century Antiochene church. In methodology, therefore, this work stands in the tried tradition of redaction criticism, with a sensible mix of a more broad literary analysis.

Graham H. Twelftree, Charles L. Holman Professor of New Testament and Early Christianity at Regent University School of Divinity.

As this volume treats the various streams of tradition separately, it could be used as a (rather thorough) reference work. It was not intended as a reference work, of course, but as something approaching the final word (in a sense) on the topic of first and second century Christian exorcism. Twelftree would deny, of course, to have written the final word on the topic, but he has given it a sort of top-down treatment that it has not had in an English work until now.

I have a minor quibble on one point: as one who doubts the Q hypothesis, I would have preferred more engagement with the issues underlying that theory. Instead of giving reasons for believing in Q, Twelftree simply gives a nod to its detractors by mentioning, in a footnote, a single work doubting Q’s existence.

The style of Twelftree’s discussion is reminiscent of David Aune’s work on prophecy: he provides an extremely thorough discussion of the details of the text, together with thorough discussion of past scholarship, although the latter is never allowed to control the discussion too much. In spite of the depth of his analysis, Twelftree does not allow the reader to get too bogged down. If a book can be said to have a pace, this one seems to have a spring in its step.

I heartily recommend this book for anyone with an interest in the topic of exorcism.

Reviewed by John C. Poirier

Preview  In the Name of Jesus: books.google.com/books?id=NmZ7Q1-8QkEC.

Maria Cimperman, When God’s People Have HIV/AIDS: An Approach to Ethics (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2005), 159 pages, ISBN 9781570756238.

How should Christians affected by HIV/AIDS be understood? Maria Cimperman, an Ursuline sister, challenges the church to view those affected or threatened by the pandemic as God’s children in need of help—just as Christ would see them. She advises the Christian community to embrace them, love them, and work tirelessly to eliminate the source of their suffering.

The book, the content of which was Cimperman’s doctorial dissertation, presents touchable realities on HIV/AIDS within the human community. It offers more of practical experiences and encounters on the topic rather than theoretical formulation. In her introduction, she explains the experiences that pushed her to research on HIV/AIDS as a theologian. She says it was born out of the necessity to address the issue after she interacted with people affected by the pandemic.

A discussion of the meaning of human existence as understood in the context of Christian revelation is offered. Cimperman develops a theological anthropology that engages human identity on the basis of relationship with God, others, and self. For her, suffering is so central that any decision on HIV/AIDS must be based on the reality of experience. Cimperman sees suffering as something that creates in us Christ’s love, hope and liberty. Christ’s love calls us to a response that involves sacrifice.

We are to be active agents of hope in the world of HIV/AIDS through relationships. She argues that for our response to be effective virtues must play a leading role. Hope, fidelity, justice, and prudence are discussed as part of the virtues that the Christian community cannot leave behind while responding to HIV/AIDS. Spirituality and morality must be integrated in Christian discipleship in order to offer an adequate response to the pandemic.

I find the presentation of real cases of people responding to HIV/AIDS in the last chapter quite helpful. Noerine Keleba’s story moves me a great deal. The suffering she encountered due to the loss of her husband through HIV/AIDS stirred her to begin The AIDS Support Organization (TASO). Her words arouse a needed sense of concern that is worth noting. She says they met to “cry and pray together,” and focused on the practical issues that affected their lives.

Amos Yong, Hospitality & the Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and the Neighbor, Faith Meets Faith Series (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008), xvii + 169, ISBN 9781570757723.

The theology and literature of hospitality is a hot topic. Over the last decade a plethora of theses, dissertations, monographs, books, and articles, whether scholarly or popular, sacred or secular, have filled our bookstores. In light of these innumerable publications, one might wonder why another work on “hospitality,” “neighbors,” and “strangers.” But would-be readers be assured; you will not be disappointed. In Hospitality & the Other, Amos Yong opens the door to a new world of interreligious possibilities. While economists appraise the value of the hospitality industry, Yong locates this motif at the heart of God’s economy. Yong proposes an innovative paradigm for theology of religious encounter, interreligious dialogue, and contemporary missionary practices. He revisits questions surrounding a biblical theology of hospitality and recommends that contemporary practices be transferable to new faith, national, or ethnic contexts.

Yong introduces his work with a moving narrative of three case studies, namely, Christian-Buddhist relations in Sri Lanka, Christian- Islamic tensions in Nigeria, and multi-cultural and interreligious contexts in the United States. Yong provides his readers a look at different social, political, and interreligious contexts as a practical point of departure – substantive examples of positive Christian relationships forged though hospitality, dialogue, and mutuality among people of different faith contexts.

Yong follows this engaging global introduction with thematic analysis well-suited for Pentecostals (to be sure, Yong does not write for Pentecostals only, but his Pentecostal worldview permeates his work). He returns to the first century church to recapture the interrelationship between Christian thought and praxis. He sets early Christian belief not in “the book” as in a catalogue of beliefs, but as encounter with the living Jesus, the paradigm for the Spirit-empowered life of Christian discipleship. Yong suggests that the early community in the Lukan narratives supplies the example for a contemporary “performative theology” (39); the church faithfully improvises the story of Jesus (Luke 1-24) and the disciples (Acts 1-28) through ongoing performance of Acts 29. In other words, contemporary followers of Jesus continue the open-ended gospel story one act at a time. Pentecostals well acquainted with evangelistic passion and experience in different and ever new contexts should resonate with this foundational thesis. In short, Yong enlarges the degree to which evangelistic creativity and pragmatic novelty might be an extension of the canonical script (55).

After reviewing the traditional categories of exclusivism, inclusivism , and pluralism, Yong suggests that these narrow and cautious platforms are no longer useful in a complex world and require more robust and systematic scrutiny. He constructs a platform for the Christian doctrine of hospitality by recommending that followers of Jesus counter interreligious violence, war, and terrorism with the spirit of Pentecost. Yong zeroes in on the Lukan story and envisions a new kind of interreligious encounter where the diverse tongues of Pentecost open up a way to imaginative Christian practices in a pluralistic world. With Pentecost as the foundation for God’s hospitable embrace, Yong returns to the Third Gospel and the Lukan Jesus as the embodiment of God’s hospitality. First, Jesus serves as an exemplary recipient of hospitality. His lowly birth in a manger and final burial in the private tomb of Joseph of Arimathea bracket a life that relies on the goodwill of many. Jesus lives his life as the consummate guest in numerous homes. Second, in ironic fashion, Jesus the “homeless” guest becomes Jesus the host, the agent of God’s redemptive hospitality. Jesus often breaks with convention by entering into suspect homes, failing to wash, and rebuking hosts in order to embrace outsiders, the oppressed and marginalized of the ancient world. In a further twist, accusers generally fail to understand and/or receive Jesus’ acts of hospitality and in so doing reject the hospitality of God. Finally, Yong finds in Jesus’ parable of the Good Samaritan a principal lesson for interreligious hospitality. Yong establishes Jesus’ teaching relating to Jewish and Samaritan tension as an illustration of mutual encounter of the “other” first century religion. Once again, Yong recommends contemporary application. Twenty-first Christians must imagine fresh possibilities for performative encounters with those of current world religions.

Francis J. Beckwith, William Lane Craig, and J. P. Moreland, eds., To Everyone an Answer: A Case for the Christian Worldview (Downer’s Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2004), 396 pages, ISBN 9780830827350.

These essays are presented in honor of Norman L. Geisler, a popular Evangelical theological apologist who has significantly influenced the editors and contributors of this volume. As the title, drawing from 1 Peter 3:15, indicates and as Josh McDowell (Foreword) and Beckwith (Introduction) further explain, To Everyone an Answer is a book about and of apologetics. Christian apologetics of course attempts to provide thoughtful people with a rationally defensible basis for faith. This book will well serve that purpose. In particular, this volume, though affirming the biblical basis of the Christian perspective on reality, appeals primarily to general revelation in an attempt to provide rational arguments understandable to those who do not (yet) share Christian faith.

To Everyone an Answer is organized in five parts with contributions from scholars in their respective areas of expertise. Foundational to the project, “Part 1: Faith, Reason, and the Necessity of Apologetics” is essentially an apology for apologetics. In other words, it defines apologetics and defends the rationale for doing apologetics. Here, for instance, Thomas A. Howe and Richard G. Howe carefully and skillfully detail the definitions and relations of faith and reason. “Part 2: God’s Existence” gets right at “new and improved versions” of classical arguments for theism. For example, Paul Copan presents a moral argument somewhat in the tradition of C. S. Lewis to trace the origin and existence of objective morality to a moral Creator and God. “Part 3: Christ and Miracles” demonstrates the rationality of belief in biblical miracles, including and especially Christ’s resurrection. An example is Ben Witherington III revisiting Christology in light of academia’s quest for the historical Jesus. “Part 4: Philosophical and Cultural Challenges” addresses issues like evolution, theodicy, and postmodernism. In one selection, Ronald Nash gives a clear, cogent Christian presentation of the problem of evil that ends by reminding that no one, including no philosophy or no religion, has explained evil in a universally satisfactory manner but that Christian theism is most credible. “Part 5: Religious Challenges to Christian Faith” looks at the reality of religious pluralism of world religions from a staunchly Christian perspective. In this section Ravi Zacharias writes a stimulating and challenging chapter on Indian culture and philosophy in the context of the gospel.

As is so often the case with such projects, To Everyone an Answer is excellent in many ways but often uneven as well. For example, most Bible-believers will probably take delight in the defense of the miracles of Christ but many Charismatic Christians will be disappointed that the present reality or continuing validity of belief in miracles appears generally dismissed or avoided. Understandably, in convincing non-Christians, the place to start is with establishing the credibility of biblical miracles. However, that does not mean contemporary relevance is dismissible. Quite the contrary, once establishing biblical miracles, adequately explaining why a miracle working God would suddenly cease working miracles could be a rational obstacle. Furthermore, hope that God can and will directly intervene in life today can be a strong inducement to trusting faith. Moreover, on the one hand, Moreland gives a striking defense of “the immaterial nature of consciousness and the soul” that suggests a body-soul “dualism” of human nature based on the teachings of Jesus. His is an excellent argument against mere “physicality” or pure “materialism.” Yet on the other hand, Douglas Groothius effectively attacks “secular postmodernism” but then mistakenly assumes he has successfully defeated Christian postmodern spirituality thereby. In fact, he did not even address Christian postmodernism or even any generic postmodern spirituality. In his defense, this oversight seems to be a supposition of the entire book as taken from introductory and concluding remarks (as well as scattered references throughout) on the subject. Yet it disappoints still.